Ethics in Contracts Essay Example for Free

Ethics in Contracts Essay Abstract: When creating a contract, a negotiator is not only doing so to reach an agreement between two or more parties, but to create an agreement that is durable; whereby parties of the contract are legally bound and committed to its promises . â€Å"A legally binding contract is defined as an exchange of promises or an agreement between parties that the law will enforce, and there is an underlying presumption for commercial agreements that parties intend to be legally bound† [1]. When a contract does not expressly address a contingency that occurs, the morality of breach is assumed here to depend on what the contract would have said had it addressed the contingency. Morality in contracts becomes crucial to parties entering into a contract. This is where the role of ethics comes in. Introduction: The etymology of business relates to the state of being busy either as an individual or society as a whole, doing commercially viable and profitable work. The most common form of business all around the world is corporation. There are more than 2 partners who either wholly or has limited liability over the business. In such a scenario the need to bind by certain terms arose both within the organization by the stakeholders and outside the organization with the suppliers and wholesalers. This dire need gave rise to â€Å"contracts†. The leaders of the organization cooperate with a set of written rules bounded by every other stakeholder. HOW CONTRACT? It all started as an idea of shaking hands, the idea it expresses has had greater impact on Business ethics. Just a simple handshake denotes the idea of agreement in economic contexts. A contract is an agreement entered voluntarily by two or more parties, each of whom intends to create one or more legal obligations between or among them. The elements of a contract are offer and acceptance by competent persons having legal capacity who exchanges consideration to create mutuality of obligation, and, in some circumstances, do so in writing. A contract is always enforceable by law and has the following essentials.[2] 1.Intentions to create a contract 2.Offer and acceptance 3.Consideration 4.Capacity to enter into contract 5.Free consent of the parties 6.Lawful object of consideration Being Ethical in contracts is behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and law where the humans are basically evolved in a moral sense and possess the ability to engage in moral behaviour. The law here is aforesaid liability in contracts where the generic importance is of getting a fair share in corporation profits. That is why it becomes extremely important to maintain ethics in contracts. The lawful object of consideration is considered very important in the contract and ethics related to contract. This is because in case of contract breach ethically or non-ethically reimbursing the value of lawful object of consideration is hereby treated as lawful. It is therefore imperative that contracts are created to be as durable as possible so parties are unable to find legal ‘loopholes’ and use their power, wealth, ignorance or cultural differences in setting contracts aside. Apart from that the ethical behaviour of the parties involved in contract adds an extra layer to the contract thereby keeping the best interest of people involved in contract. The following factors seem to affect the ethics involved in contracts. Cultural Flexibility Japanese culture for instance, the creation of a contract symbolises formation of a working relationship, and not a legally binding agreement. Some groups will regard the contract as being flexible in terms that if any problems or issues arise, the parties will reassess the obligations of the agreement and negotiate ways to preserve the relationship. Being Ethical and professional at the same time is viewed with high regard by the Japanese. However, this is not generally the ‘Western’ view on contracts. In relation to the ethical issue of cultural relativism, a business is obliged to operate in a manner acceptable to the host country, both legally and morally. The example cited here dealing with Shell portrays the fact of having contract as per the ethical behaviour of the host country. In those cases, there arises a question, is it morally wrong for a Western party to hold a Japanese party to the contract when it is known that the Japanese party would not have intended to be legally bound? Or is it unethical or immoral of the Japanese to sign such an agreement, even though they mean well when signing it, knowing the Western party intended to be legally bound by the contract but themselves see the contract as more of a flexible agreement? 1.Shell Oil : Brent Spar incident Popularly known as the Nigeria/Spar episode which taught the company to be ethical in its host country. In its action to maximize profits Shell articulated roundtables of 14 countries which brought together 159 shell executives and 145 external participants including opinion leaders and journalists. In this meet Shell articulated a contract which ensured its commitment to health, safety and environment. It set the same as the goals of the company. The step to the goal was supposedly implemented immediately by setting up safety team to manage HSE and Shell publicly announced its commitment towards human right and health safety[4]. Shell’s initiatives in the wake of Nigeria and Brent Spar signalled a fuller recognition of subtlety of ethics. With the completion of a pipeline connection to the oil terminal at Sullom Voe in Shetland, the storage facility had continued in use but was considered to be of no further value as of 1991. Brent Spar became an issue of public concern in 1995, when the British government announced its support for Shells application for disposal in deep Atlantic waters at North Feni Ridge (approximately 250 km from the west coast of Scotland, at a depth of around 2.5 km)[3]. This put issues of societal expectation in sharp relief. These incidents forced shell to recognize that people around the world come to place a heightened value on conservation of natural resources. Nigeria on the other hand had distinctively non European ethical expectations for companies. The evolving ethical attitudes of emerging economies, made Shell recognize that unless it changes global and regional changes in attitudes it cannot draw a line between ethical and unethical behaviour. Nigeria and Brent Spar forces shell to realize the importance of social contracts that framed business activities. Shell later on monitored the changing communal understandings as they played a growing role in company’s actions. Shell started to factor social contracts into ethical decision making process. Ethical games in business are played with different rules in different countries. In companies multinationals and corporations’ racial gender and world, questions of clash and compatibility between family and work are now assumed to be proper province of corporate management. Shell with its troubles it faced in early 90s due to Brent spar incident stands as a perfect example to approaching ethical issues in business. The differences in cultural expectations can predictably lead to the more economically powerful party attempting to negotiate that all breaches will be dealt with ultimately by courts from their own culture, applying their own cultural and legal rules. This then highlights the issue of different legal rules existing in different countries which enable contracts to be set aside. The list of exceptions to finality of contracts varies from one jurisdiction to another, and this is often placed under the label ‘frustration of contracts’. Some jurisdictions, notably Australia, Israel and India, imply a term of good faith into contracts. A final way in which terms may be implied due to fact is through a previous course of dealing or common. The Uniform Commercial Code of the United States also imposes an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing in performance and enforcement of contracts covered by the Code, which cannot be derogated from. [5] Lack of Informed Consent Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informed consent. Another person is generally authorised to give consent if an individual is unable to. These cases sometimes result in a party refusing to comply with the terms of the contract. This usually is exploited by many unethical behaviour. 2.This was the case in Gerbert and Gerbert (1990) FLC 92-137 [1], where a husband settled for 10% of assets against his probable entitlement to 40%, and it was held that there was no miscarriage of justice as the husband acted feely and was advised to seek legal advice. In cases where an individual is provided limited facts, serious ethical issues may arise. It is unethical to hold someone to a contract when they clearly had no awareness of exactly what they were signing and committing themselves to, due to ignorance. It is unethical for a lawyer to encourage the signing of a document if they are clearly not fully understanding of the document. Wealth If the chance of success and money is opportune to a wealthy person, their capacity and willingness can give rise to alleging various legal justifications for breach. A few years of legal expenses may only be a small proportion of their empire, and the resulting attrition and disparate investment in the conflict may eventually encourage other parties to renegotiate the disputed In terms of moral relativism, most people would agree that it is ethically wrong to use wealth to control a situation and to ‘force’ people into renegotiating clauses in contracts if they are unable to afford the legal bill accompanying a dispute. In situations such as these, the ‘little man’ usually loses out and will ultimately succumb to the power of the other party or parties. 3.Gujarat Housing Board vs Vipul Corporation on 21 June, 2004 [6] Housing Board was awarded a contract to Vipul Corporation for Water Proofing work of 360 Middle Income Group Houses at Valsad on 22.11.1994, being highest bidder, on accepting the tender. It appears that at the last moment, when work was about to be started, the work was obstructed. Housing Board was sincerely trying to create an atmosphere which may enable the contractor to perform the contract. It appears that the Housing Board also took the defence of frustration of the contract as per sec. 56 of the Contracts Act. Vipul Corporation lost the case but it hardly did anything to their business that they were able to pay the indemnification amount in the contract and started bidding for other contracts as if nothing had happened with their wealth. This was because of the large amount of accumulated wealth. Undue Influence Undue influence is an equitable doctrine that involves one person taking advantage of a position of power over another. The law presumes that in certain classes of relationship there will be a special risk of one party unduly influencing their conduct and motives for contracting. The general rule is whether there was a relationship of such trust and confidence that it should give rise to such a presumption 4.An example of such a case is Odorizzi v. Bloomfield School District CA Ct of App 54 Ca Rpt 533 [1964]. The plaintiff was under contract as a teacher. He was arrested, and the next day he allegedly was pressured by his superiors to sign and deliver his resignation. He was cleared of the criminal charges, and then he sought to be reinstated by the school district. They refused, so he sued to rescind his resignation. He claimed that his resignation should not be enforced because, among other things, he signed it under the â€Å"undue influence† of his superiors. When a party has placed their confidence and trust in another and this relationship is broken, the view of moral relativism will generally see this situation as being wrong. Here we see that the implications of Ethics in contracts being ignored. Ensuring Ethics of Contracts †¢A longstanding relationship –a contract with them raise incentives to perform †¢Avoiding making contracts with cultural groups that view contracts as the ‘beginning of a relationship’, rather than a legally binding agreement [1] †¢Clarifying whether ‘yes’ means ‘maybe’ or ‘no’ and whether signed and detailed contracts are considered to be binding, morally, legally and/or in reputation, †¢How any future misunderstandings and problems will be addressed to be discussed at the time of the contract †¢Only going into contract with parties that are stable and reliable †¢Attempting to reduce buyer’s remorse by †¢Making congratulatory speeches about the agreement’s benefits †¢Never agreeing quickly to any clauses †¢Adding post-agreement gifts and bonuses †¢Publicize the deal by mutual agreement. A wider audience will then place expectations on all parties to perform, or risk losing face and credibility in future arrangements. Most people have a strong desire to act consistently with their own clear commitment Signing a contract We focus so much on deal substance and style that we often lose sight of the problems that can arise at the most critical time of all—when pen is hitting paper. If a lawyer mishandles contract execution, it can lead to a malpractice claim, professional discipline and a very angry client (or, more likely, former client) A DEAL ISN’T â€Å"DONE† UNTIL YOU SEE A FULLY SIGNED AGREEMENT (or, better yet, cash in the bank) 5.As a great example of this, see International Telemeter v. Teleprompter, 592 F.2d 49 (2d Cir. 1979). Kirsch’s client told Kirsch that it had signed a settlement agreement, but Kirsch didn’t get the signed copy into his possession. Kirsch then relayed the alleged good news to the other side. However, Kirsch’s client had a management change before delivering the signed copy, and the new management balked at the settlement. This left Kirsch in the middle—he had told the other side that the agreement was done (and had authority to do so), but his client had reversed course and was saying the deal was never signed. Not only did Kirsch’s eagerness cost Kirsch a client (he resigned), but he has very few defences if his former client sues him for malpractice based on being committed to a deal they didn’t want. This issue also comes up with press releases—no public announcements of a completed deal until you see the fully signed contract. 6.ONGC vs Streamline Shipping Co. Pvt. Ltd. on 22 March, 2002 [7] On 19-2-1999 the appellant floated a tender for manning, running, operating, repairing and maintenance on hire of three vessels under Group IX i.e. Samudrika 2, Samudrika 7 and Sindhu 9. The respondent was one of the tenderers. On 30-12-1999 a contract was signed between the appellant and respondent for vessel Samudrika 2 for the primary term of 2 and half years from 9-12-1999. Clause 1.10.1 of the agreement provided. In the case above a contract was floated between ONGC and Streamline shipping co. for maintenance of three vessels. The vessels were damaged pretty badly in an exploration expedition and ONGC sought their help as per contract. But the streamline shipping company due to the high cost that may be incurred, viewing their personal interests acted unethically in contract and avoided to repair. In the 1990s, this issue reached a zenith as lawyers scrambled to obtain equity in clients, either as part of undertaking the representation or as directed shares when clients were lining up for an IPO. Seeking big payoffs, some lawyers took pretty aggressive interpretations of the rules to engage in these transactions, but it would be a mistake to relegate this behaviour to the dot-com boom. Instead, doing business with clients occurs in all aspects of the legal profession, and it poses significant risks in every format. Parties’ concern of breach Still another reason why it may be rational for parties not to take pains to include many contingent provisions in a contract concern the general possibility of renegotiation of their contract. The reason why we would expect only limited use of contingent provisions is that our legal regime, under which parties usually are able to commit breach and pay damages, serves as an implicit substitute for contingent provisions. Under this regime, a party will be motivated to perform if the cost of so doing is not high, in order to avoid paying damages; whereas he will be led to commit breach if the cost of performing is high, because paying damages will be less expensive than performing. This behaviour – performing when the cost is below a threshold and not performing when the cost would exceed a threshold – is in at least qualitative alignment is considered unethical. Still another reason why it may be rational for parties not to take pains to include many contingent provision s in a contract concerns the general possibility of renegotiation of their contract. The parties can anticipate that if they do not provide for a troublesome contingency and it occurs, they will often be able to renegotiate and resolve their problem. If, for instance, the seller finds that it would be unexpectedly costly to perform when the contract requires that, he might be able to obtain a release from his obligation by paying the buyer some bargained-for sum. Of course, the outcome of such renegotiation may be uncertain and it may introduce an added risk into a contract. The question of the morality of breach is when contracts are incomplete. To ascertain whether a breach in a contingency that was not explicitly provided for is moral or immoral under our definition, one needs to determine whether performance would or would not have been required had the contingency been expressly addressed, and whether the parties to the incomplete contract know this. The morality of breach of incomplete contracts occurs when damages equal the expectation measure. When sellers have to pay damages for breach, they will be motivated to obey the contract if the cost of performance is less than the damages they would have to pay for a breach. If, though, the cost of performance exceeds the damages they would owe for a breach, they will have a financial reason to commit breach. Hence, they will tend to commit breach if and only if the cost of performance exceeds the measure of damages. Ethics comes in this aspect when the sellers has the cost of performance exceeds the damages they have to pay. The ethical aspect is whether to perform the contract or not. Since the penalty is very less compared to the cost of performing the work, the contractor tends to do violate the contract and pay the penalty. This should be avoided by corporations to create a good reputation within its peers. In order to avoid this circumstance, the contracting parties now-a-days agree to have the compensation amount to be greater than the cost of doing the actual work. The case regarding the state of Kerala precisely portrays this part of the ethics in contracts. 7.State Of Kerala vs United Shippers And Dredgers Ltd. on 15 July, 1982 The Government of Kerala through Superintending Engineer, Irrigation Central Circle, Trichur, entered into a contract with the respondent on 19-9-1975 to do the work of improvements to Champakkara Canal-Dredging works and allied works. The work was agreed to be completed on or before 15-7-1976. The agreement also required the contractor to maintain progress in work as prescribed in the schedule in Clause 3 of the agreement. There was also a provision in the contract to enable penalty to be levied in case of failure on the part of the contractor to maintain stipulated progress. The contractor did not maintain stipulated progress and extensions of time were granted on contractors requests as per supplemental agreements. Or account of the delay in maintaining agreed progress in the work; penalties were levied against the contractor at the rates prescribed. After the completion of the work end the drawing of the final bill, disputes arose between the contracting parties and as provided in the agreement. From withheld amount a sum of Rupees 7,35,000/- (Rupees seven lakhs and thirty five thousand only) shall be refunded to claimant by the respondents.. The United shippers Ltd. performed the breach on account of the cost of compensation being higher than the cost of performing contract. The ethical aspect of this made contracts thereafter to rewrite them in lieu of having the cost of compensation and the cost of lost profit to be included in the terms of contract. Had the parties been ethical, it wouldn’t have required the contracts to reinvent their terms for this sake. For example, if the measure of damages is $125 instead of the expectation of $200, breach will occur whenever the cost of performance exceeds $125. Consequently, if breach occurs when the cost is between $125 and $200, for instance when it is $150, the complete contract would have insisted on performance. Such breach would be immoral and unethical, if the seller realizes that the true expectation is $200. Given the conclusions reached in the prior section, what can be said about whether the breach that we see in practice is moral or immoral? If damages tend to be fully compensatory, we could say that breach tends to be moral, as breach should occur if and only if contracting parties would have allowed non performance had they addressed in their contracts the contingencies that engendered breach. But if damages are not really compensatory, breach might be immoral. Situations portraying Ethics Damages tend not to reflect the often considerable delays that victims of breach suffer. The legal costs are not compensated. In view of the foregoing, the practical reality seems to be that breach could be immoral or moral, that we have to inspect the reasons for breach and the knowledge of the party committing breach to know which the case is. To gain an understanding of these issues, a small-scale survey was conducted [8]. The number of respondents were 41. The survey consisted of four questions, each of which asked about the morality of breach and could be answered as follows: (1) definitely unethical; (2) somewhat unethical; (3) neither ethical nor unethical; (4) somewhat ethical; (5) definitely ethical. Assigning a score of 1 to definitely unethical, a score of 2 to somewhat unethical, and so forth. Hence, the lower score, the less ethical a respondent felt breach would be. The first question was designed to ascertain whether respondents believe that breach in general is unethi cal. It was as follows: 8. [8]â€Å"Suppose that a Renovator has made a contract with a construction company to do a Home decor. The Renovator then discovers that the job would cost him a lot more than he had anticipated because the price of decor equipment has risen sharply – so the Renovator would lose money on the job. Is it unethical for the Renovater to break his contract with the company?† Note that the question does not mention whether damages would be paid. The average answer score was 2.41, meaning about midway between somewhat unethical and neither ethical nor unethical. Also, 38 of the 41 respondents found breach unethical or ethically neutral; only 3 of respondents answered that the breach would be somewhat ethical (none as definitely ethical). 9.[8]â€Å"Suppose that a Renovator has made a contract with a construction company and finds that his costs have risen sharply due to an increase in the price of decoration equipment. Suppose too that the Renovator and the company did not discuss this unlikely possibility when they made their contract. However, the Renovator knows what they would have agreed to if they had discussed this possible large cost increase in advance: They would have agreed that the contract would be cancelled if there was a large cost increase – the Renovator would be excused from the contract. Under these assumptions, is it unethical for the Renovator to break his contract?†The average answer score was 3.0, meaning ethically neutral. Also, 17 of the respondents found breach more ethical in this question than they had in the first question; none of the respondents found breach less ethical than in the first question. 10.[8] â€Å"Suppose that a kitchen Renovator has made a contract with a construction company and finds that his costs have risen sharply due to an increase in the price of decoration equipment. Suppose too that the Renovator and the comapany did not discuss this unlikely possibility when they made their contract. However, the Renovator knows what they would have agreed to if they had discussed this possible large cost increase in advance: They would have agreed that the contract would remain in force despite a large price increase – the Renovator would still have to do the job.† The average answer score for this question was 1.56, which is to say, midway between definitely unethical and somewhat ethical. All but three of the respondents found breach to be somewhat or definitely unethical, and the other three considered it ethically neutral. Further, 31 of the respondents found breach to be less ethical than in the prior question where the hypothesis was that performance would not have been agreed to. 11.[8]â€Å"Suppose that a kitchen Renovator has made a contract with a construction comapny and finds that his costs have risen sharply due to an increase in the price of decoration equipment. If the kitchen Renovator breaks his contract with the company, suppose that (as contract law says is required) he compensates the construction company for his losses – for delay, inconvenience, having to hire another renovator, and so forth. Is it unethical for the Renovator to breach his contract?†The average answer score for this question was 3.56, which is about midway between ethically neutral and somewhat ethical. In summary, the individuals participating in the survey found the simple, unqualified fact of breach to be unethical on average (2.41 was the average for question 1). In other words, the felt reaction to the fact of breach is that it is an unethical act. However, when individuals were prompted by being told what contracting parties would have agreed to had they discussed the particular contingency that arose, individuals tended to change their evaluation of the morality of breach, finding it better or worse in the expected way. When informed that if the problematic contingency had been discussed, the contracting parties would have said no duty to perform, individuals found breach ethically neutral (3.0 was the average for question 2). When apprised that if the problematic contingency had been discussed, the contracting parties would have said there was still a duty to perform, individuals found breach to be quite unethical (1.56 was the average score for question 3). And when told that breach would be accompanied by full damages payments, individuals again changed their opinion of breach, finding it to be somewhat ethical (3.56 was the average score for question 4). An important normative aspect of many commentators’ writing on breach is their moral advice. Their writing often suggests that individuals and corporations ought to feel a general ethical duty to obey contracts, that is, a desire to obey contracts above and beyond that due only to having to pay damages for breach. If we could shape individuals’ moral feelings, we would want corporations to put a thumb on the scale in favour of contract performance. According to a perfectly calibrated and flexible moral system, the moral sentiments would come into play if and only if they are needed to correct the too-great incentive of a â€Å"bad man† to commit breach, when the personal benefit from breach would exceed damages but not the true value of the expectancy. This ideal moral system is consistent with the spirit of traditional advice, and is inconsistent with the spirit of efficient breach theory, in that morality has a useful role to play. The actual moral system, however, is not as flexible as the ideal one. The moral impulses probably cannot be freely tailored to turn on for this kind of contract breach and to turn off or that one. The implications for moral advice about breach become complicated, for when giving moral advice, we have to consider the degree to which the advice will be understood as special to the circumstances of the breach, or as having a more general effect, and thus entailing the implicit disadvantages just mentioned. A striking instance of such thinking is that underlying the approach of the German Civil Code to contract performance, according to which the general remedy for breach is supposed to be specific performance. Had it been that contracts are to an important extent incomplete promises and thus on reflection that the morality of promise-keeping does not imply that performance should always occur. Damages are inadequate because it is time-consuming and expensive for the legal system to resolve what would often be contentious proceedings about subjective elements of loss from breach. It may be that our legal system works better avoiding the costs of ascertaining these problematic elements of loss, relying on moral forces, such as they are, to fill the gap in inducing appropriate performance. Conclusion The implications article for the general normative thrust of the writing of traditional commentators concerned with the morality of breach and also of the efficient breach theorists. Assuming that the social objective is to promote an corporate measure of social welfare, one based on individuals’ utilities. In particular, our moral feelings which have been portrayed as Ethics throughout will have a direct effect on social welfare because they are themselves components of corporate utilities and they will also exert an indirect influence on social welfare because they provide incentives toward socially desirable behaviour. In any event, the belief that there is a clear and overarching moral reason to alter contract law to enhance the keeping of contracts appears to me to be the product of an over simple view of the moral sentiments and of a related failure to take into account the importance of the incompleteness of contracts. List of references 1.http://www.bond.edu.au/law 2.Course material on Indian Legal System-IIMC 3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Spar 4.Ties that Bind- Donaldson and Thomas 5.http://contracts.uslegal.com/elements-of-a-contract/ 6.http://www.indiankanoon.org/docfragment/927021/?formInput=gujarat%20housing%20board%20vs%20vipul%20corporation 7.http://www.indiankanoon.org/docfragment/1617242/?formInput=ongc%20vs%20streamline%20shipping 8.A Social Contracts Approach to Business Ethics By Thomas

Transition stages of a group Essay Example for Free

Transition stages of a group Essay Recognizing that change will be occurring noticing our reaction to it initiates the transition process. Some people recognize the need change earlier than others. We may see the signs and notice the handwriting on the wall well ahead of others. Other of us may not recognize or react until the change is imminent. In either case, when change is apparent to sometimes obvious, we all form a reaction to the pending change. There are three options. It can embrace the change, accept it somewhat passively, or reject it. The first reactions will lead to the planning stage. However, if we reject or disagree with the change, we can become temporarily stalled. It might question the need for the change, become angry about it, feel highly stressed by the thought of it, or in some cases, experience feelings of depression like losing a job or getting a divorce can be so intimidating that short term counseling may be needed to help with acceptance of change and to facilitate the planning process. Before, we can continue the journey to the next adventure or change we will need to formulate a goal and action plan. If the change is about entering a new relationship, we often discuss with our partner the goals we have for the relationships, describe our expectations, or try to be clear in our own minds what it is we are looking for. If we are looking for a new relationship we may generate alternatives about how to meet new people. When anticipating a major move, we need to think about where we will live, what we need to take with us, and what need to be done before we can leave. The planning stage can help to minimize and diminish fears and concern about the unknown by identifying the concrete steps that will help us with the transition. Setting short term goals and envisioning the perfect scenario that could occur as a result of the change may help s to feel better about it. This is often the most difficult part of the transition process. It can be both stressful and sad to leave the familiar environments and routines or let go of cherished keepsakes, pets or a way of life especially when the experiences have positive. For many, the most difficult is to say goodbye to the people whom we have come to know, love respect, and depend on. There are things we do to reduce the effect of the separation. We may need to be sure that we have time to visit with each  of those special people and to set up ways to keep in touch. Setting a date for a reunion or a phone call in the near future may reduce feeling of finality. Creating photograph collages with special memories that may be given as parting gifts can help to keep memories in the forefront to reduce anxiety. Remembering that we are all only a phone call or e-mail away may even help to reduce the initial stress of leaving others behind. Whenever we start a new journey there are moments of anticipation or exhilaration. We may even experience and a adrenaline rush, where we can feel the physical effects of the body’s anticipating of the change. Whether we’ve moved to a new place, or we just start a new job, the initial entry, while stressful, can also be positive exciting. This stage is helpful in putting the past behind and embracing the excitement and newness of what is to come. Taking it all in, meeting new people, and looking at possibilities may seem exciting and sometimes even almost overwhelming. Sometimes this new period has been called the honeymoon period where the newness the change gives us a false sense of reality. True or false this period of initial excitement is an important bridge from the past to the future. This security and eager anticipation helps to energize us to cross over into our new situation. However wonderful the initial excitement, when the dust settles and reality sets in we can often feel a let down. We realize that we are in a new and different place. We are not sure of the culture, the expectations, or how we will fit in. during this stage we begin to fill in the blanks. We familiarize ourselves with the routines, the environment and people who potentially will enrich our lives if we allow it. As Spenser Johnson (1998) says in his book about dealing with change, â€Å"who moved my cheese†? during the search for new endings (or cheese) we must free ourselves of the fear, envision the goals and leaves the past behind. We may need to find mentor d or guides who can provide information and advice about the culture or context. We will need to explore untraveled paths and leave ourselves open to new experiences, although some days may be difficult especially at the onset or in the beginning of the change. Taking a one day at a time philosophy, we should allow ourselves to set a specific goals for the day, focus on one positive event that occurred that day, and let go of the past. â€Å"Movement in a new direction helps you find new cheese.† During this time we try to make the strange familiar by seeking out others who have  out similar interests, goals, or talent. We should seek out opportunities that pique out interests. When we reach this stage we are now living the change as a normal part of life. We feel as though we have become an accepted and valued member of the community or relationship. We can now focus on how we contribute to the environment and to make a difference in self actualization and elevate ourselves on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs scale. We may even realize that what we may have been holding onto about a former life was an exaggerated illusion and not the reality of that life at all. Finally we realize that while in this situation we should take advantage of what this new change offers as the next change is just around the corner, and it begins again!

Software As A Service Information Technology Essay

Software As A Service Information Technology Essay SaaS is nothing but a high end software model that enhances the interaction of companies with their clients or consumers. The most common instances of SaaS are to track the shipment online or online billing. The advantage of implementing SaaS is that there is no cost incurred upon the consumers/ clients. The software is developed and ported on the internet and is accessible 247 throughout the world. This document covers the information regarding traditional Client-Server model and SaaS. Also advantages and disadvantages of SaaS are discussed in this paper. Document Overview: This document gives an overview of the SaaS, basic architecture how it is using in the real world, and describes the advantages and disadvantages of SaaS. What is SaaS: SaaS is a software application which is ready to use where user can purchase or rent the software on a monthly or yearly basis, and user nothing to worry about application software or any other installation process. Client Server Vs SaaS: Traditionally, most of the software applications have been developed using client-server model. In a client-server model, we can find many hidden costs for supporting and deploying a client server system, together with expensive hardware to install and maintain. In most of the scenarios, the initial software license worth of a client server system is only one third of the total worth of the system. Client Server Model The significance of SaaS is that is a technology platform and its becoming increasingly recognized as a more efficient way to deploy software application. SaaS model is a technique of providing the same software to dissimilar customers through a network, over the Internet. In other way, we can say that the software is not installed on the customers personal computers. SaaS model delineates a vendor is whole responsible for the creation, maintenance, enhancements and all software and hardware related updates. Customers are only responsible for initial purchase of the product or subscription to access it. This subscription includes a separate license for each individual person that will make use the software. The Saas model can add cost savings and efficiency for the both the customer and product vendor. Customers save money and time since they do not have to install drivers and maintain software programs or any other hardware related system upgrade. We get softwares from different customers through network, commonly Internet. Software is not presented in client side, it is provided by a vendor. Vendor have to be uploaded the software in the server. If anything needs to update, preparing to upload new software and maintenance of the application means software vendor has to do this. Once customer purchased the software, he gets the licensed key, it is unique and applicable for one time and no one can share the information. SaaS MODEL SaaS and SOA: SaaS also uses Service Oriented Architecture to communicate between subsystems in the Enterprise Applications. Each application subsystem can act as service to interact with other subsystems via public brokers. These services also act as service requesters. Enterprise application some time requires a web services to verify the data with some other third party agencies. In order to interact with some other application, web service call will be routed through SOA. SaaS Applications: In our real life we are currently using many SaaS applications. Those are free to use but more useful in our real world. Free SaaS Applications: Gmail Google Calendar MapQuest Google Maps. Wikipedia All these above applications have simple interfaces and powerful enough to do everything we want to do. Any types of enhancements for any SaaS application vendor do it in a single shot then everyone (customers) can use those changes on their machines without doing any operations. Profit Organizations Using SaaS Applications: FedEx Chase Air Canada Hertz Google Finance All profit organization using SaaS applications are fully tested while they going for any new application related enhancements or any application related fixes. Benefits of SaaS: Lower Costs: Most SaaS solutions are offered at a lower subscription cost (Monthly/Quarterly/Yearly) with no up-front fees. By using Saas software consumers can save a lot of money. All they have to do is pay a subscription fee for the duration of time they will be using an application for and vendors bear all the security and infrastructure costs. This is a very cost effective solution for users who may only use a software application on rare occasions. Data storage requirements: Some application can occupy a lot of hard drive space at end users systems. By using SaaS software consumers can save a lot of hot drive space because data is stored on the vendors database. Also users dont have to worry about constantly backing up the data as this is handled by SaaS vendors. SaaS vendor profits: SaaS allows software vendors to receive a continuous stream of income in the form of subscriptions. Speed of deployment: Potentially very fast as the application is already up and running on the vendors server so you just have to get your data onto the system. Simpler Solution: The less software and hardware components installed on-premise, the simpler faster the deployment becomes. The time to value is much faster compared to on-premise Alternatives usually measured in minutes. Lower Risk: In a SaaS model the customer can unsubscribe or cancel the subscription, and with no databases and application servers to install, this means lower overall risk to IT and the business. Enhance Scalability:   In SaaS Model expansion of business and contract is easily accommodated by providing the flexibility to expand their operations without having to wait for their Information Technology infrastructure to grasp up. This allows organizations to simply add new applications when they needed. This type of flexibility in other business model is not possible.   Improved Data Security: The SaaS provider has many resources to provide systematic and widespread data security options and guard the computer centers from casual access. Access Anywhere: Users can access their data by using the SaaS application from anywhere as long as they have the internet connection. This will enhance the user experience in making the work done in a faster way. Automatic Upgrades: The version of software available when you log into your SaaS account is latest because there is only one version offered. If there is an error found in the software the SaaS provider can quickly make the changes. Not Platform Specific: The software is platform independent and can be used from any operating system as long as you have an internet connection to use the application. It will enable you to use a wide variety of platforms. End User Advantages: End user or Customer no needs to main the Software, deployments in the server and updating. If new versions are release user nothing to bother about any type of operations. Vendor is responsible to upgrade the versions. But user needs to update those versions. Risks Disadvantages: More costly in the long run: Flouting point usually occurs around two to three years Less manage over the application: Customization and integration of application is more limited for end users. Vendor feasibility becomes even greater unease: Since users data is restricted by the vendor. Security issues: Since the data is stored on the servers of the SaaS application provider there might be a security issue of intruders hacking the personal information while the data is transferred over the network. To prevent this, the SaaS application providers need to apply necessary security patches. It depends on the vendor for providing good security. Limited applications: Generally SaaS vendors offer the applications which are more popular and the application user wants to use may not be he is from that group. So the only way to user use the application is to buy it and install it in his computer. Summary: In this paper we discussed about Software as a Service (SaaS) how it works in a real time and why SaaS replaced by traditional Client Server Model. Also we discussed about various types of applications that are using SaaS. At the end we discussed about advantages, Risks and disadvantages by using SaaS.

Reinterpretación Filosófica de la Paideia Trágica :: Spanish Essays

Reinterpretacià ³n Filosà ³fica de la Paideia Trà ¡gica ABSTRACT: Philosophy as paideia is shown here as a resignification of tragedy as paideia in consonance with several contemporary thinkers. In this philosophical reading of tragedy, noted as the confirmation of an à ªthos starting from pà ¡thos, the experience of suffering is a privileged instance of learning which generates a peculiar wisdom — anagnà ³risis. Its appropriation gives occasion for a deep conversion that may take place as salvation. Moreover, the tragical paideà ­a is — in the case of Antà ­gone — an exemplary surpassing of violence towards justice, and the surpassing of justice in the paradigm of friendship and human solidarity. From Antà ­gone, it is possible to throw light on the ethical life (Sittlichkeit), so as to see it as did Hegel. In it there is already a constellation of tensions provoked by the connected incidence of destiny and the action of human liberty. This constitutes the tragical conflict which shakes the home or family, the pà ³lis, the phà ½sis and questions of justice and destiny, in order to recover them, perhaps, at a higher level of love and friendship. But above all, Antà ­gone presents an alternative to paideà ­a because she speaks and acts from alterity, from the brother or sister as the other absent, and so allows the other side to emerge, the other side imperfectly seen until now as an obscure, unconscious, underground — the other that one tends to forget and avoid — the excluded, the nothing as mystery of being, the kingdom of shadows that exalts the limits of light-figures, the female principle as the gravity-force of the male principle, femininity as 'irony of the community.' Ensayamos plantear aquà ­ cà ³mo, a partir de Hegel, ciertos textos contemporà ¡neos evidencian una asombrosa afinidad con la paideia trà ¡gica. Las figuras de Antà ­gona y de Edipo, tal como las caracteriza Sà ³focles, recobran asà ­ toda su fuerza educativa de paradigmas à ©ticos de humanizacià ³n. Desde las relecturas de Hegel, Kierkegaard, Heidegger, Ricoeur, M. Zambrano, Steiner han sabido liberar nuevas posibilidades a partir de estos modelos trà ¡gicos. 1.- Antà ­gona y el à ªthos trà ¡gico A nosotros nos ha interesado sobre todo la figura de Antà ­gona , porque la obra homà ³nima de Sà ³focles permite no sà ³lo un relevamiento de la eticidad (magistralmente ya realizado por Hegel), sino que presenta tambià ©n una alternativa para la paideia. En cuanto a la eticidad, la piedad fraterna de Antà ­gona tiene raà ­ces mà ¡s profundas que un sentimiento subjetivo y azaroso.

Cloning Essay -- essays research papers

Many have imagined what it would be like to have a clone of themselves. Many have also feared the thought of having a clone. Due to popular belief that a clone would be an exact duplicate. An incorrect presumption made by many. Proceeding along side is the religious beliefs and the controversial ethicality and morality aspects of human cloning. A stance taken by many religions and their congregations. In reality the public has a very narrow sense of what human cloning is. Rather than research and understand the scientific aspect of human cloning, they instead take faith in what the media and movies portray human cloning to be. It is from this information source that a majority base their decision on weather human cloning is ethical or unethical. Human cloning is a new challenge for science and that by pursuing it we will become enlightened in who and what the human being is and its true potential. The truth is that despite the many claims of religious leaders and anti-cloning protesters, human cloning may truly be the key to curing all disease and cancers that have plagued humans from the, dawn of human. The questions is," Do the benefits of human cloning out weigh the risks and ethicality of society?'   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lee M. Silver, a professor of molecular biology at Princeton University, wrote "Cloning Misperceptions," from Remaking Eden: Cloning and Beyond in a Brave New World. Silver asks, "Why do four out five Americans think that human cloning is morally wrong?" Silver answers by pointing out that people have a very muddled sense of what human cloning is. This accredited to the fact many people perceive what they see in the media and movies and associate it with reality. For example, the movie Multiplicity where a man has himself cloned and then his clone makes a clone of itself this happens two more times and each time a clone was made it became less intelligent. This brings up his next point which was depicted in the movie Blade Runner, many people believe a human clone would not have a soul, because it would be a replication of a living thing that is still in existence. Which is not true since a clone child is conceived and birthed like any normal child would, from a mother's womb. And just like any other child, the clone would have a mind and personality o... ...bility to reverse the effects of a heart attack by injecting healthy heart cells into the damaged areas. Condemnation of this new technology could be denying human beings the key to finding the a cure for all diseases and cancers. And the enlightenment of who and what we are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The truth is that human clones are just has human as any one else and do not deserve to be treated like second rate citizens. Clones have souls too and are autonomous individuals with their conscience and personalities. Parents need to be given more credit in that they would not objectify their cloned children, but love them unconditionally. Cloning should not be condemned, due to fear for the unknown, but should be explored to benefit human kind and enlighten us on who and what we are. Human cloning is a new frontier that will have its own obstacles and walls to climb over, go around, or go under. Human cloning will be cherished and prized for what it has brought humanity, new medical technologies, along with cures for disease and cancer. Unfortunately it is inevitable, but a sacrifice will be made some where as with many past medical advancements. Cloning Essay -- essays research papers Many have imagined what it would be like to have a clone of themselves. Many have also feared the thought of having a clone. Due to popular belief that a clone would be an exact duplicate. An incorrect presumption made by many. Proceeding along side is the religious beliefs and the controversial ethicality and morality aspects of human cloning. A stance taken by many religions and their congregations. In reality the public has a very narrow sense of what human cloning is. Rather than research and understand the scientific aspect of human cloning, they instead take faith in what the media and movies portray human cloning to be. It is from this information source that a majority base their decision on weather human cloning is ethical or unethical. Human cloning is a new challenge for science and that by pursuing it we will become enlightened in who and what the human being is and its true potential. The truth is that despite the many claims of religious leaders and anti-cloning protesters, human cloning may truly be the key to curing all disease and cancers that have plagued humans from the, dawn of human. The questions is," Do the benefits of human cloning out weigh the risks and ethicality of society?'   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lee M. Silver, a professor of molecular biology at Princeton University, wrote "Cloning Misperceptions," from Remaking Eden: Cloning and Beyond in a Brave New World. Silver asks, "Why do four out five Americans think that human cloning is morally wrong?" Silver answers by pointing out that people have a very muddled sense of what human cloning is. This accredited to the fact many people perceive what they see in the media and movies and associate it with reality. For example, the movie Multiplicity where a man has himself cloned and then his clone makes a clone of itself this happens two more times and each time a clone was made it became less intelligent. This brings up his next point which was depicted in the movie Blade Runner, many people believe a human clone would not have a soul, because it would be a replication of a living thing that is still in existence. Which is not true since a clone child is conceived and birthed like any normal child would, from a mother's womb. And just like any other child, the clone would have a mind and personality o... ...bility to reverse the effects of a heart attack by injecting healthy heart cells into the damaged areas. Condemnation of this new technology could be denying human beings the key to finding the a cure for all diseases and cancers. And the enlightenment of who and what we are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The truth is that human clones are just has human as any one else and do not deserve to be treated like second rate citizens. Clones have souls too and are autonomous individuals with their conscience and personalities. Parents need to be given more credit in that they would not objectify their cloned children, but love them unconditionally. Cloning should not be condemned, due to fear for the unknown, but should be explored to benefit human kind and enlighten us on who and what we are. Human cloning is a new frontier that will have its own obstacles and walls to climb over, go around, or go under. Human cloning will be cherished and prized for what it has brought humanity, new medical technologies, along with cures for disease and cancer. Unfortunately it is inevitable, but a sacrifice will be made some where as with many past medical advancements.

Humorous Wedding Roast by the Best Man Essay -- Wedding Toasts Roasts

Humorous Wedding Roast by the Best Man Good afternoon Ladies and Gentlemen - My name is Ron and I’m Allen’s best man. Well, I’m the best he could find anyway. But all things considered, I feel that I’ve done my duty well so far today. I delivered a sober groom to the church on time – well, he was definitely on time! I provided the rings on cue, and as I give this speech now, I don’t think I’m going to offend or embarrass anyone. But to ensure this last part, I better keep things fairly short - and I know Allen’s itching to get to the bar. Allen is a social type you see - he likes to have a laugh, a few drinks and a dance. And he’s particularly good at the drinking part, his catchphrase being 'WHOSE ROUND IS IT?' or 'GET TO THE BAR!’ He’d be a good dancer as well if it weren’t ...

Psychoanalytic Approach to Eating Disorders

NHS states that the average GP will have one to two anorexic patients in their practice. However, this is probably more, as eating disorders are such a secret, and many people do not come forth to be treated. Anorexia is a mental eating disorder, characterised by; refusal to maintain normal weight for ones age and height, (more than 15 percent below predicted weight. intense fear of becoming obese, which doesn’t diminish even with weight loss, body image distortion and absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles expected to occur (in women sufferes) For many years psychoanalytic theorists have been interested in the distal influences on anorexia nervosa an extremely common eating disorder. It has been argued that the psychoanalytic approach has made great contribution to understanding mental disorders such as the later, not just through theories, but also through therapies and case studies.This essay will touch upon the aforementioned topics. It became clear that al though the psychoanalytic theory has, and forever will make massive contribution in our understanding of mental disorder, there are many fundamental flaws of the theory. There are many theories under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, this essay will begin discussing the personality theories such as the ‘object relations theory’; this psychoanalytic theory describes the process of developing the mind as one grows in relation to others in the environment, primarily the family and especially between mother and child.Palazzoli proposed an object relations theory of the mental disorder anorexia nervosa. Palazzoli formulated that the anorexic patient identifies her body with her ‘bad’ internalized mother, who has not been integrated with her psyche. The body is internalised as a maternal object, therefore when changes begin at puberty, the child sees this as a direct attack from the internalised mother. The patient’s response is to fight back against t he internalised mother by controlling her body through controlling food intake and exercising.Therefore the psychoanalytic approach proves to have contributed to our understanding mental disorder greatly. However, one weakness of this theory would be that the theory is highly theoretical, therefore all data is based on a concept that cannot be verified objectively. On the other hand, Art therapy has qualities which are integrated with the object relations theory allowing the patient to express unconscious internal material without activating defence mechanisms, proving the psychoanalytic theory to be key in our understanding of mental disorder.Another personality theory that comes under psychoanalysis would be Freud’s theory of psychosexual development. Freud expressed that if there was any problem at any of the stages of development, stressful experiences would arise in adult life through regression. The link from this theory to anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa would be f ixation in the phallic stage of development (3-6), Males have the capacity to develop the Oedipus complex, while females, the Electra complex. At this stage children begin to differentiate between male and females through genital awareness.Males are intrigued by their mothers and are jealous of their father’s intrusion, resulting in castration anxiety. In the case of the female, she is attracted to her father, and realises that she doesn’t have a penis, this leads to penis envy and the wish to be a boy, she too internalises these feelings. However Freud argued that fixation for both male and female children can occur at this point through displacement of their ‘feelings’ onto their bodies thus resulting in vanity, preoccupation with body shape, and anorexia.Freud (1889/ 1954) likened eating disorders to † a melancholia occurring when sexuality has been underdeveloped†¦Loss of appetite is in sexual terms loss of libido†. Ironically Freudâ⠂¬â„¢s daughter suffered from anorexia. While this psychoanalytical explanation is effective in helping to understand mental disorder such as anorexia there are weaknesses; perhaps one of the biggest weaknesses is that Freud doesn’t place enough emphasis on culture or society and how both factors play a massive role in a child’s behaviours.Erickson argues that too much emphasis is placed on sexual urges and not enough on later factors, and many argue that much of freuds work is highly reductionistic. However it could be urged that Freud provided a valuable insight into how early experiences affect adult personality and how these fixations can lead to psychological problems and mental disorder in later life. Another weakness put forth was one by neo Freudian Karen Horney; she argued against penis envy and claimed that this was merely a woman’s envy of men’s power in the world, which was justified.She also claimed that womb envy occurs just as much in men, and that men were envious of a woman’s ability to bear children. This therefore faults Freuds psychosexual theory, indicating that the psychoanalytic approach does not necessarily contribute to the understanding of mental disorders. The anal stage of the psychosexual model is also thought to be able to give a plausible explanation as to why mental disorders occur, i. e. anorexia nervosa.It is thought that the anal stage is when a child learns to control excretion and that fixation occurring at this stage could lead to power struggle, between the child and parent. Thus the child may feel the need to gain autonomy over themselves and their bodies, therefore creating an illusion of control and this could lead to mental disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. It is also thought that children experiencing conflicts at the anal stage can develop anal personality traits, namely those associated with orderliness, cleanliness or compulsion.The ‘anal retentive†™ personality is thought to be compulsive, and a perfectionist. This easily links with mental disorders such as anorexia nervosa. This proves the psychoanalytic approach to be key in our understanding of mental disorders. One criticism however is that most of Freud’s work is based on findings of case studies, single individual cases are often unique and there are problems with generalization, as individual differences occurs every day in amongst people, therefore results for one individual may be different for another.Although it has been argued that the order of behaviour and age ranges of the psychosexual stages are correct, thus giving us a deeper insight and better understanding of the contributions made from psycho analytics to childhood and mental disorder later on in life. Perhaps the most obvious link between Freud’s sexual stages and mental disorder such as anorexia nervosa is the ‘oral stage’ this stage is from around 0 to 18 months and is the first stage in the psychosexual model.It could be formulated that a child fixated at the oral stage could be preoccupied later on in life with food, thus, leading to anorexia nervosa. Supporting evidence for this was carried out by Jacobs at al (1966) using Rorschach inkblots to compare the orality of smokers and non-smokers. It was found that smokers emerged as possessing oral personality types, as this personality type is preoccupied with anything to do with the mouth, i. e. Thumb sucking, smoking, masticating and most obvious: eating, therefore mental disorders such as anorexia may be more likely to occur in these types of individuals.Thus the psychoanalytic contributes greatly to our understanding of mental disorder as the theory provides us with studies. On the other hand a weakness would be that the psychosexual stages model is simplistic and naive, as the assumption that only childhood experiences cause harm to the personality and that later experience are not harmful is simp listic. It could also be labelled deterministic, as the model implies that all children who are fixated at particular points in the stages will develop some sort of mental disorder which is untrue.Mental defence mechanisms also play an important part in the psychoanalytic theory of mental disorder. Freud theorised that a defence mechanism is a tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety and to safe guard the mind against feelings that society may look down upon or that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. One important defence mechanism would be ‘displacement’ it is believed that the affect of painful memories that the mind can’t cope with can be displaced and then attached to another memory. Dare & Crowther 1995)This could be the case with many patients suffering from an eating disorder. i. e. Mary was sexually abused as a child. She doesn’t know how to cope with this, people at school then begin to bully her and call her fat. therefore her ego uses the defence mechanism of displacement, and displaces the bad memories of sexual abuse onto food, and refuses to eat and then develops anorexia. This shows how greatly the psychoanalytic theory contributes to our understanding of mental disorder.The case of the wolf man supports the theory of displacement. The wolf man first came to see Freud in 1910 with body dysmorphic disorder; The essential feature of this disorder is a preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance or disproportionate concern with a slight physical anomaly. Wolf man suffered from anxiety and depression and approached Freud for treatment, explaining that he would have a recurrent dream that would wake him up on most nights.He would dream that he could see six white wolves sitting on a walnut tree staring at him outside of his window – the sight terrified him. Freud traced all his problems back to childhood neurosis. It turned out that when wolf man was around two years old that he had woken up and had seen his parents having sexual intercourse. The violence of this act had terrified him and since then he had been dreaming about and had developed a fear of wolves.It was argued that wolf man could then have seen copulation between animals in the papers and then have displaced this onto his parents. (Freud 1918) This is because the memory of seeing his parents having sexual intercourse had frightened him so much that the defence mechanism ‘displacement’ arose. In order to safe guard his conscious mind. This case study is proof that the psychoanalytic approach deeply aids us in the understanding of mental disorder. However it has been argued that there was no ‘unconscious’ and that all mental activity was conscious. Jean-Paul Sartre) the unconcious is also unfalsifiable and lacks explanatory or predictive value. Throughout this essay it may seem that the psychoanalytic approach contributes to our understanding of mental disorder, whi ch is supported by case studies and theories however there seem to be many weaknesses of the theory suggesting that theories may need to be revised and tweaked in order to provide us with substantial theories to explain mental disorders such as anorexia nervosa.In conclusion it seems that although the psychoanalytic approach has been influential and has many strong points, overall the theory is slightly discredited and doesn’t contribute to our understanding of mental disorder in the case of anorexia nervosa as much as it should for a theory that has been standing for so many years.